Indra’s Ratha in Melakkadambur, a Chola Masterpiece
It is one of the least known treasures of South Indian art. Hidden in
the isolated village of Melakkadambur, the Amritagateshvara temple is
unique for its sculpture, its architecture and
its astronomical significance. The shrine has been constructed as a
ratha or chariot. In the tradition of the temple it is called Indra’s
Vimana . It gives the impression it has just landed a moment ago
carrying gods and sages. These are depicted on the walls that are
covered with some of the most spectacular sculpture created by Chola
artists.
Melakkadambur is situated some 32 km. S.W. from
Chidambaram and 4 km. from Kattumannargudi, in Cuddalore district, Tamil
Nadu, near the southern tip of the Veeranam Eri, a large irrigation
reservoir constructed by Chola kings . Two inscriptions engraved on the
walls of the temple belonging to the 41st and the 43rd year of the reign
of the Chola king Kulottunga I (1070-1120) indicate the temple existed
in this form by the early 12th century. But three hymns dedicated to the
deity of this temple from the Tevaram indicate it was already a
renowned sacred place in the 7th century CE.
This temple is the
earliest one known to have been built in the form of a chariot. The
chariot form shrine or hall is distinctive for South Indian
architecture. This architectural concept was applied in many temples
constructed during the later phases of the Chola empire, and also by
other South Indian dynasties. They were built during the time of the
later Cholas, between 1100 and 1280. Horses, and sometimes also
elephants, are depicted “drawing” the building which is given one or two
pairs of wheels. Several of the chariot shrines and mandapas are famous
for their great wealth in sculpture, such as the Nritta Sabha in the
Shiva Nataraja temple in Chidambaram, the Mukha Mandapa of the
Airavateshvara temple in Darasuram, and the Nataraja shrine of the
Nageshvara temple in Kumbakonam . But the sculpture of the
Amritagateshvara temple is truly magnificent and its architecture and
iconography make it stand out even among these.
This shrine
is hidden in more then one way. Driving to Melakkadambur takes about an
hour from Chidambaram, crisscrossing small roads through villages and
between paddy fields. Upon entering the courtyard the main shrine
remains concealed behind a simple open pillared mandapa. This has
possibly contributed to its pristine shape. Not one nose has been cut,
damage often seen in temples in South India. Walking around the mandapa
we happen upon the main shrine and its wealth of sculpture. There is so
much to see and the first impression is so overwhelming, one cannot move
one’s eyes. Within the context of this article we can only touch upon a
few aspects.
The shrine is a dvitala or two-storied vimana,
with an ardhamandapa or vestibule slightly narrower and directly
attached to the garbhagriha or sanctum. The sanctum has four wheels, two
on each side. The horses are positioned at the side and front of the
ardhamandapa. In the center of the walls of the grabhagriha we find an
elaborate niche or sub shrine which houses a murti or sculpture of a
deity. Flanking these, figures of deities and sages are positioned
directly on the wall, in between pilasters that form a kind of blind
niche.
The base consists of a plain and straight upana
(base). The adhisthana (sockle) consists of several mouldings which are
(from the bottom upward) (Figure 8):
a double layer of lotus petals
jagati: straight and undecorated)
kumuda: round and ribbed)
kantha (neck): decorated with miniature freezes
pattika: undecorated
kantha (neck): decorated with miniature freezes and miniature panels under the pilasters
vari
The kal or pilasters are composed of a square base with octagonal
malasthana, kalasha, kumbha and kamala. The whole is capped with the
usual square palagai . The podigai or corbel shows the typology of the
transitional phase between the T-podigai of the Rajaraja period and the
corbel of Later Chola architecture. Just under the roof and the kapota
(cornice) where we typically would have found a bhutagana frieze showing
frolicking dwarf-like followers of Shiva in an Early Chola temple, we
find a frieze of sculptural panels. Its subject matter cannot be
discerned as it is partly hidden behind the larger bracket figures of
dancers and yalis or horned lions.
The second tala or storey is
octagonal and has pañjaras with deities on the cardinal directions.
Shiva Dakshinamurti is facing south, Vishnu facing west, and Brahma
facing north . Miniature shrines positioned on the corners are replicas
of ekatala (one-storey) temples and are much more elaborate than the
karnakutis usually found on the corners of the roof of dvitala temples.
They are square shrines with figures inside miniature pañjaras, flanked
by pilasters and dancers on the corners. There are no shalas or
barrel-roof rectangular miniature shrines at the center, which would
have been the usual structural decoration in this place. The shalas have
been replaced by the large kudus housing in their turn a pañjara with
the sculpture of a deity. The griva or neck is round and has niches with
seated figures capped with enlarged open kudus on the four directions.
The round shikhara has large kudus and is capped with a metal stupa. The
kapotas of this temple are ribbed. Each of the three walls of the
vimana has uncommonly four levels of projecting bays with depictions of
the deities conventional for the cardinal directions. All these aspects
of the structure are highly unusual.
In front of the original
shrine is a closed mukha mandapa, probably of a later date. And in front
of this is a pillared mandapa that possibly dates to the 13th or 14th
century. It is partially open to the East and the South, but is closed
on the North. Projecting from the northern wall and facing south a
subsidiary shrine for the consort of the presiding deity of the temple
has been constructed, also probably at a later date.
The walls
of the ardhamandapa have been used to house three deities on each side,
while the sanctum has one main deity for each wall accompanied by two
flanking figures. This creates a sculptural plan which is very elaborate
and unusual. Altogether fifteen major figures are positioned on the
walls of this relatively small shrine.
The way in which they
have been accommodated is also unusual. The structures within which the
six deities on the ardhamandapa and the central deities of the
garbhagriha are housed are all pañjaras. The pañjara was already a
feature of Pallava temple architecture, where it had the role of
accommodating a murti on a temple wall or as abstract decoration on a
roof. A pañjara is in a way a miniature shrine in two dimensions. Chola
architects adopted the structure of the pañjara during the earlier
phases of the Chola period (910 to 970) as a structure to fill the space
of a vimana wall without using it to house sculptures of deities.
The structure preferred by Chola architects to accommodate sculptures
of deities was the devakoshtha or niche. The most obvious differences
between a devakoshtha and a pañjara are that the first is capped by a
lintel and crowned with a makaratorana, whereas the second is capped by a
kapota or cornice crowned with a miniature ekatala or one-storied
shrine. After 970 pañjaras disappear from the walls of Chola temples.
But by the end of the 11th century they have returned and have replaced
the niche as the preferred structure in which to house the central murti
on the walls of temples. Especially on larger structures we find
combinations of pañjaras and niches applied to house murtis, as can be
seen on the Airavateshvara temple in Darasuram and on the walls of the
gopuras of the Shiva Nataraja temple in Chidambaram. The pañjaras of the
later Chola period, especially the ones in a central position on a
wall, distinguish themselves often by being capped with a shala or
barrel shaped roof element, instead of a miniature ekatala.
But the pañjaras that accommodate murtis on the Amritagateshvara temple
in Melakkadambur are unusual in several ways. They do not have a base of
their own that would have made them project out from the temple wall,
but are all situated on the base of the temple. At the same time each
has a kind of ‘base’ structure positioned in front, creating the
appearance of a projection. Each of the walls of the ardhamandapa and
the grabhagriha has a central figure that is housed in an exceptional
pañjara. These pañjaras are unusual in that they each have a pair of
independent octagonal pillars with lions as caryatids supporting a roof
that juts out from the wall and is sculpted with a ribbed kapota
(cornice). The pañjaras of the sanctum are lower and jut out further
than the central pañjaras of the ardhamandapa wall which are higher, but
do not have the usual crowning feature above the kapota. The only other
structure with similar pañjaras, as far as I know, is the Nritta Sabha,
the ratha mandapa, in the Shiva Nataraja temple in Chidambaram, where
Indian sphinxes or purushamriga occupy the place of caryatids.
The inside of the projecting roofs of the pañjaras have been sculpted
giving the impression of a wooden roof with beams and connecting wooden
structures. The sculptors have fashioned a replica in stone of a wooden
structure, with all the detailed carving common for wood, a great
achievement in a substance like granite.
The pañjaras that
house the main deities of the sanctum wall are crowned with a very
unusual, huge horse-shoe shaped feature, which is actually a larger
version of the kudu that crowns many regular pañjaras. Inside this kudu
is another pañjara in which we find also a sculptured figure. The
miniature ekatala crowning this in its turn accommodates another,
miniature, murti.
The neighboring pañjaras on the ardhamandapa
wall are more standard. Two pilasters flank the niche space, which is
capped with a kapota and crowned with an ekatala miniature shrine. Here
it can be mentioned that the flanking pañjaras on the Southern
ardhamandapa wall are much lower then the pañjaras on the northern wall.
To adjust the wall space the ekatala shrines capping the pañjaras on
the Southern wall are much taller. This kind of a-symmetry is again very
unusual.
Attending figures flanking niches are quite common on
Chola temples, but the major figures adorning the sanctum walls are
remarkable. They have been given a pedestal and, although attendant on
the deities in the main pañjaras, they are of the same size as the
directional murtis, and are obviously not intended as diminutive
secondary figures.
Altogether 15 major murtis decorate the
walls of this shrine. The major sculptures are labeled in 12th century
Tamil and Grantha (Sanskrit) script and relate to the sthalapurana or
foundation myth of this temple. Besides these main figures there are
countless subsidiary niches, sculptures and decorations. The temple
surface is decorated with exceptionally detailed miniatures, scrollwork,
lions, dancers and musicians.
Going clockwise round the temple
we find the following deities and sages placed in the pañjaras and on
the temple wall in the following order.
On the south wall of the ardhamandapam:
(A) Ganapati
(B) Ardhanari
(C) Agastya
On the south wall of the sanctum:
(D) Indra
(E) Dakshinamurti
(F) Romasa Muni
On the west wall of the sanctum:
(G) Chandra
(H) Vishnu
(K) Surya
On the north wall:
(L) Parvataraja
(M) Brahma
(N) Patanjali
On the north wall of the ardhamandapa:
(O) Gangadhara
(P) Alinginamurti
(R) Durga
All these figures display interesting characteristics. In this article
some of the more noteworthy aspects will be featured, although this
temple has so much to offer the student of architecture, art and
iconography, it could easily fill a book.
The sculptural plan
as a whole is elaborate, and just as the use of pañjaras, could be
interpreted as, in a way, archaic. Using the typology developed by
Dr.Hoekveld-Meijer the ground plan and lay-out can be described as,
which means it is a building with two-stories, with one protruding
section and six pilasters in each wall of the garbhagriha or sanctum.
The lay-out of the ardhamandapa is, which indicates a slightly narrower
ardhamandapa or vestibule directly connected to the garbhagriha, with
one ‘niche’ in each garbhagriha wall, and three in each ardhamandapa
wall.
The most common iconographical plan for a Chola temple is
one niche on each of the ardhamandapa walls, and one in each of the
sanctum walls. In the clock-wise order of the circumambulation the
original arrangement was Ganesha (South ardhamandapa wall),
Dakshinamurti (Shiva, South sanctum wall)), Vishnu (West sanctum wall),
Brahma (North sanctum wall), and Durga (North ardhamandapa wall). This
order for the directions reflects the earliest phase of a Chola lay-out.
Vishnu was replaced early on by Ardhanari. Soon after Lingodbhavamurti
became the standard West-facing deity. Three murtis on an ardhamandapa
wall became quite common during the later part of the 10th century,
especially under the influence of the Chola queen Sembyan Mahadevi. But
with a different iconographical program, as Shiva Nataraja was the
central deity on the southern ardhamandapa wall in most of the temples
build in this period.
The three central deities on the sanctum
wall in Melakkadambur are Dakshinamurti (seated facing South),Vishnu
(seated facing West) and Brahma (seated facing North) . Dakshinamurti is
flanked by Indra on the right and Romasa Maharishi on the left. Vishnu
is flanked by Surya, the Sun, on the left, and Chandra, the Moon, on the
right. Brahma is flanked by Parvataraja on the right and Patanjali
Maharishi on the left. Each flanking figure is depicted as worshipping a
small Linga sculpted as part of the pilaster in front of him. The
pilasters form a kind of ‘blank niche’ around the figures.
Each
of these attending figures is characterized by its own costume, jewelry
and attributes. Unique is that each figure is also ‘crowned’ as it
were, by a small sculpture on a block above its head which depicts a
symbol characteristic for it.
Indra is beardless, wears a
crown, is dressed with a draped full length dhoti and a jeweled belt,
and wears elaborate necklaces and bracelets on his arms. He is depicted
holding a rudraksha mala between his hands which are folded in Anjali
mudra, the gesture of worship. The symbol above his head consist of six
open spirals containing miniature depictions of his attributes.
Romasa Maharishi is bearded with a moustache and has his hair knotted
on top of his head in the manner of a sage. He wears a sacred thread
over his left shoulder. His hands are depicted as in the meditation, and
his right hand holds a rudraksha mala. He wears a full-length dhoti.
The symbol above his head is the cosmic tree. Romasa Maharishi is a
mythological figure who is known as the author of an ancient
astronomical work, the Romasa Siddhanta. He also plays a role in
mythology as a figure with a life-span of astronomical proportions.
Chandra, the Moon is beardless, wears a short dhoti with drapes falling
down the side of his legs and a jeweled belt. He wears jewelry on his
arms and around his neck, and a crown. His hands are folded in anjali
mudra and hold a rudraksha mala. The disk of the moon is depicted behind
his head like a halo. The symbol above his head is a whitewater lily.
Surya, the Sun, is similar to Chandra, with a short dhoti and crown,
hands folded in worship and holding a mala. The sun disk is shown around
and behind his head. The symbol above his head is the lotus .
Parvataraja is the personification of the Himalaya Mountains and the
father of the goddess Parvati. He wears a short dhoti and holds his
hands folded in anjali mudra with a mala between them. His crown
represents the Himalaya Mountains. The symbol above his head is the
purushamriga or human-beast, the sphinx of the Indian tradition. Here
the sphinx is depicted with a lion body and a human head surrounded by
extended mane.
Patanjali is the composer of the Yoga Sutras and
one of the founding sages of the Shiva Nataraja temple in nearby
Chidambaram. He is depicted with the lower body of a snake and with a
five-headed cobra crowning him, as he is the incarnation of the cosmic
snake Shesha. His palms are folded together and hold the mala. The
symbol above his head is appropriately Shiva Nataraja dancing under a
miniature of the golden roof of the Chit Sabha of Chidambaram .
The central murti of the southern ardhamandapa wall is Ardhanari,
flanked by Ganesha on the right and the sage Agastya on the left.
Ardhanari is Shiva and Parvati together in one form, with Shiva as the
male principle on the right side, and Parvati as the female on the left .
This form of Shiva occupied the Western niche of Early Chola temples
for a while, and was later found among the murtis depicted on the
northern ardhamandapa wall during the Sembiyan Mahadevi phase in the
later 10th century.
The northern ardhamandapa wall features
Alinganamurti as the central figure, flanked by Gangadhara on the right
and Durga on the left. Alinganamurti is a representation of Shiva and
Parvati seated together. Durga used to be the deity of choice for the
northern niche whenever an ardhamandapa had only one deity depicted, but
here she holds the subordinate place.
The Gangavataranamurti
shows Shiva with four arms attending on a slightly smaller Parvati,
while he almost ‘catches’ the descending Ganga in the upper-left corner
with his raised arm. A peculiar feature of this murti is the Apasmara,
the dwarf figure under Shiva’s right foot. He is sitting in an upright
position facing the viewer. This is characteristic for the Apasmara of
the Pallava period . In the ekatala shrine crowning this pañjara we see a
small figure of Shiva as mendicant or Bhikshatana.
The
mythology of this temple explains that Indra worshipped Shiva here to
obtain the amrita or ambrosia, the heavenly drink of immortality. The
temple is also described as Karakkoil, which means ‘hidden temple’ or
‘temple with a hidden treasure’. The depiction of Parvataraja, Romasa
Maharishi, Surya and Chandra indicate an astronomical significance. This
is a subject for future research. As it has not been possible to trace a
more complete version of the temple’s mythology which could throw a
light on the meaning of this elaborate iconographical lay-out, it is not
possible to draw any conclusions at this point.
Here ends our
discussion of the iconographical plan and the characteristics of the
main figures depicted around the temple wall. But these are only the
most obvious sculptural features. There are miniatures on the kanthas of
the base, on the pilasters, inside the kudus on the kapotas. There are
dancers and prancing yalis or horned lions between the palagai and the
roof. All the kapotas or cornices are ribbed. The base of the pilasters
features scroll-work, within which again we find miniature figures.
Many, especially on the kanthas, are narrative in nature.
Under
the cornices we find in stone sculpture what would have been the
elements of the roof structure had the temple been made of wood and
brick. Also under the cornice of the roof and of the shikhara we see
stone replicas of beams and connecting structures, as if the roof were
made of wood.
The pilasters are octagonal with a square base.
Ornamented with lions and opened lotus buds on the corners, scrollwork
and dancers in the center. Miniatures are sculpted in great detail
around the part called the malasthana .
Typically makara heads
with warriors in their open mouths jut out from the corners of Chola
temples . Here yalis with warriors on their back jump diagonally from
the wall of the base . The structure of the roof does have the makara
heads on the corners.
Another feature of earlier Chola temples
that is missing is the Bhutagana freeze. Instead we find a series of
sculptural panels the details of which cannot be ascertained because it
is hidden behind other sculpture.
Some of the most beautiful
and interesting of the miniatures are the various forms of Dancing Shiva
found on the pilasters. The most eye-catching miniature is of Shiva
dancing the Ananda Tandava or Dance of Bliss depicted with his consort
Parvati on the right and Brahma playing cymbals on the left . Around the
corner, to the left of Brahma, goddess Kali is dancing, and in the next
miniature the emaciated figure of Karaikal Ammayar, the female saint,
is also playing cymbals. All are focused on Shiva’s Cosmic Dance . Other
dancing forms of Shiva found among the sculpture are Gajantaka, Shiva
dancing on the Elephant skull (on the pilaster to the right of Indra)
and Urddhva Tandava Murti (on the pilaster to the left of Surya) .
In striking contrast the lower most part of the base is completely bare
and plain. And so are the stone wheels that make this shrine a chariot.
Usually the wheels of ratha type structures are carved elaborately as
for example in the Nageshvara temple in Kumbakonam . Also the
positioning of the horses generates questions. The horses with their
attendants are turned slightly diagonally away from the main wall . The
stone beams that stick out from the wall of the ardhamandapa and seem to
serve as yoke to the horse are also positioned in an unusual angle .
Additionally this beam looks like it may have been intended originally
as an axle to a stone chariot wheel. All this indicates the possibility
that, at some time in the past, a renovation was carried out that
changed this base.
Indra’s chariot in Melakkadambur is a true
master piece in every way. Additionally several features indicate an
even more exiting possibility. For example the iconographical lay-out
(Vishnu facing West), the ground plan , the use of pañjaras to house
murtis, and some of the iconographical details (for example the upright
Apasmara under the right foot of Gangadhara, and the rearing yali
figures on the walls and as bracket figures), all point to the
possibility we have here a temple that is a replica in stone of a much
earlier temple. This may very well have been a temple of brick, wood and
plaster, as would be suggested by the imitation of beams and other
wooden features in the sculpted roofs and cornices. It could convince us
to think it may even have been a temple originally constructed during
the time when the Pallava dynasty ruled this part of Southern India. The
three compositions found in the Tevaram illustrate this temple was
renowned already in the 7th century. The composers of these three poems,
the saint-poets Appar and Tirujñana Sambandhar, are known for their
close relationship with Pallava kings.
Because it is generally
assumed no architecture from the early periods made of brick and wood
has survived, its existence is ignored by most studies of Indian
architecture. But many early stone temples such as the Rathas in
Mamallapuram and others show the sculptors initially often copied in
stone what they were familiar with in wood and brick. These features
could be studied to improve our understanding of the evolution of South
Indian architecture.
The possibility that the Amritagatheshvara
temple in Melakkadambur is a replica in stone of an earlier, possibly
even a Pallava, temple is an exiting prospect. That this is not
necessarily wishful thinking is confirmed by the fact that while
speaking to an elderly person present at the time of my visit, I was
told the oral tradition about this temple says it was first a chariot
made of wood, later reconstructed in stone. We could imagine how
difficult it must have been to build such a master piece of architecture
and sculpture in brick and wood. How difficult it must have been for
the architects and sculptors of the 11th century to execute a replica of
such a master piece in a material like granite.
